Vocabulary: Chapter 4
Acculturation: When cultures come into contact and a less dominant culture adopts some of the traits of the more influential or dominant one. If, over time, the less dominant culture loses its distinctness and drops its traits assimilation has occurred. The dominant culture has absorbed the less dominant one.
Assimilation: the process through which people lose originally differentiating traits, such as dress, speech particularities or mannerisms, when they come into contact with another society or culture (usually a dominant one). Often used to describe immigrant adaptation to new places. Can be forced, such as in the treatment if Native Americans by European settlers.
Culture: the sum total of the knowledge, attitudes, and habitual behavior patterns shared and transmitted by the members of a society. This is anthropologist Ralph Linton's definition; many others exist.
Cultural Appropriation: the adoption of some specific elements of one culture by another culture.
Cultural Barrier: Prevailing cultural attitude rendering certain innovations, ideas or practices unacceptable or unadoptable in that particular culture.
Cultural Hearth: Heartland, source area, innovation center; place of origin of a major culture.
Cultural Landscape: The visible imprint of human activity and culture on the landscape. They layers of buildings, forms and artifacts sequentially imprinted on the landscape by the activities of various human occupants.
Cultural Relativism: is the principle that an individual human's beliefs and activities should be understood by others in terms of that individual's own culture (contrasts with ethnocentrism).
Culture Trait: a single attribute of a culture.
Culture Complex: When a trait combines with others in a distinctive way a culture complex is formed. This includes common values, beliefs, behaviors and artifacts that make a group in an area distinct from others. China has many culture complexes.
Culture System: a group of interconnected culture complexes. On the map a culture region can represent an entire culture system that intertwines with its locational and environmental circumstances to form a geographic region.
Custom: The frequent repetition of an act, to the extent that it becomes characteristic of the group of people performing the act.
Habit: A repetitive act performed by a particular individual (not a cultural trait because it doesn't belong to a group).
Ethnocentricism: the belief that ones own culture (or ethnic group) is superior to others. Judging other groups through the lens of one's own culture. This is something humans do naturally, but can be overcome by seeking understanding of other cultures.
Folk Culture: Culture traditionally practiced by a small, homogeneous, rural group living in relative isolation from other groups.(true folk culture doesn't exist in the U.S. apart from Anabaptist communities, so this term gets used interchangeably with Local Culture).
Popular Culture: Culture found in a large, heterogeneous society that shares certain habits despite differences in other personal characteristics.
Maladaptive Diffusion: diffusion of an idea or innovation that is not suitable for the environment in which it diffused into (e.g., New England-style homes in Hawaii, or Ranch-style homes in northeast US).
Syncretism: when cultural traits from two distinct cultures fuse to form a new cultural trait. "Sikhism is syncretic because it includes characteristics of Islam and Hinduism."
Taboo: A restriction on behavior imposed by social custom.
Terroir: The contribution of a location's distinctive physical features to the way food tastes (associated with France, Italy).
Assimilation: the process through which people lose originally differentiating traits, such as dress, speech particularities or mannerisms, when they come into contact with another society or culture (usually a dominant one). Often used to describe immigrant adaptation to new places. Can be forced, such as in the treatment if Native Americans by European settlers.
Culture: the sum total of the knowledge, attitudes, and habitual behavior patterns shared and transmitted by the members of a society. This is anthropologist Ralph Linton's definition; many others exist.
Cultural Appropriation: the adoption of some specific elements of one culture by another culture.
Cultural Barrier: Prevailing cultural attitude rendering certain innovations, ideas or practices unacceptable or unadoptable in that particular culture.
Cultural Hearth: Heartland, source area, innovation center; place of origin of a major culture.
Cultural Landscape: The visible imprint of human activity and culture on the landscape. They layers of buildings, forms and artifacts sequentially imprinted on the landscape by the activities of various human occupants.
Cultural Relativism: is the principle that an individual human's beliefs and activities should be understood by others in terms of that individual's own culture (contrasts with ethnocentrism).
Culture Trait: a single attribute of a culture.
Culture Complex: When a trait combines with others in a distinctive way a culture complex is formed. This includes common values, beliefs, behaviors and artifacts that make a group in an area distinct from others. China has many culture complexes.
Culture System: a group of interconnected culture complexes. On the map a culture region can represent an entire culture system that intertwines with its locational and environmental circumstances to form a geographic region.
Custom: The frequent repetition of an act, to the extent that it becomes characteristic of the group of people performing the act.
Habit: A repetitive act performed by a particular individual (not a cultural trait because it doesn't belong to a group).
Ethnocentricism: the belief that ones own culture (or ethnic group) is superior to others. Judging other groups through the lens of one's own culture. This is something humans do naturally, but can be overcome by seeking understanding of other cultures.
Folk Culture: Culture traditionally practiced by a small, homogeneous, rural group living in relative isolation from other groups.(true folk culture doesn't exist in the U.S. apart from Anabaptist communities, so this term gets used interchangeably with Local Culture).
Popular Culture: Culture found in a large, heterogeneous society that shares certain habits despite differences in other personal characteristics.
Maladaptive Diffusion: diffusion of an idea or innovation that is not suitable for the environment in which it diffused into (e.g., New England-style homes in Hawaii, or Ranch-style homes in northeast US).
Syncretism: when cultural traits from two distinct cultures fuse to form a new cultural trait. "Sikhism is syncretic because it includes characteristics of Islam and Hinduism."
Taboo: A restriction on behavior imposed by social custom.
Terroir: The contribution of a location's distinctive physical features to the way food tastes (associated with France, Italy).
Language: Ch. 5
British Received Pronunciation (BRP): The dialect of English associated with upper-class Britons living in London and now considered standard in the United Kingdom.
Conquest Theory: A theory that holds that speakers of early Proto-Indo-European migrated east to west on horseback, overpowering earlier inhabitants and beginning the diffusion of Indo-European tongues.
Creole or creolized language: A language that results from the mixing of a colonizer's language with the indigenous language of the people being dominated. A pidgin language becomes a creole when it becomes the language that is used daily by the people (example, in Haiti).
Denglish: Combination of German and English.
Dialect: A regional variety of a language distinguished by vocabulary, spelling and pronunciation.
Ebonics: Dialect spoken by some African Americans.
Extinct Language: A language that was once used by people in daily activities but is no longer used (no more native speakers).
Franglais: A term used by the French for English words that have entered the French language; a combination of francais and anglais, the French words for French and English.
Ideograms: The system of writing used in China and Japan in which each symbol represents an idea or a concept rather than a specific sound, as is the case with letters in English.
Isogloss: A boundary that separates regions in which different language usages predominate.
Isolated Language: A language that is unrelated to any other languages and therefore not attached to any language family.
Kurgan Hypothesis: (same as Conquest Theory) theory of diffusion for Indo-European languages - horseback riding herders near the Caspian Sea conquered neighboring tribes diffusing their language in the process.
Language: A system of communication through the use of speech, a collection of sounds understood by a group of people to have the same meaning.
Language branch: A collection of languages (within a family) related through a common ancestor that existed several thousand years ago. Differences are not as extensive or as old as with language families, and archaeological evidence can confirm that the branches derived from the same family. Examples: Germanic or Romance
Language divergence: this occurs when spatial interaction among speakers of a language breaks down and the language fragments first into dialects and then into distinct tongues. For example - between the Spanish and the Portuguese.
Linguistic Diversity Index: A measure that expresses the likelihood that two randomly selected individuals in a country speak different first languages. Values range from .00 to .99. LDI's close to 1 mean high linguistic diversity. Papua New Guinea in Southeast Asia has both the highest LDI ranking and the greatest total number of languages spoken within its borders. Other examples: U.S. = .35, Mexico .13, Myanmar .64.
Language family: A collection of languages related to each other through a common ancestor long before recorded history. For example: Sino-Tibetan
Language group: A collection of languages within a branch that share a common origin in the relatively recent past and display relatively few differences in grammar and vocabulary. Examples: West Germanic, North Germanic
Lingua franca: A language mutually understood and commonly used in trade by people who have different native languages. It is a language of interaction for commerce or possibly education. English is the global lingua franca today. Other lingua francas include Swahili in East Africa and French during the 17-19th centuries.
Literary tradition: A language that is written as well as spoken. Only about 700 of Africa's 2000 or so languages have a literary tradition.
Multilingual states: are countries with more than one language in use. Sometimes linguistic fragmentation occurs (like in Belgium or Quebec, Canada or African countries with many languages (Nigeria) where language is a divisive force.
Official language: The language adopted for use by the government for the conduct of business and publication of documents. Many former British colonies use English and several local languages as "Official" languages.
Pidgin language: A form of speech that adopts a simplified grammar and limited vocabulary of a lingua franca; used for communications among speakers of two different languages.
Renfrew Hypothesis (Anatolian): Archaeologist Colin Renfrew argued that Indo-European diffused into Europe and S. Asia along with agricultural practices rather than by military conquest (Kurgan). The language triumphed because its speakers became more numerous and prosperous by growing their own food instead of relying on hunting.
Sound Shift: a slight change in a word across languages within a subfamily or through a language family from the present backwards towards its origin.
Spanglish: Combination of Spanish and English, spoken by Hispanic Americans.
Standard Language: The form of a language that becomes accepted for education and mass communication. Typically, a dialect in a center of commerce or government becomes the standard version.For example when Martin Luther translated the Bible into German that dialect eventually became "High German," or the standard version for all of Germany even though there were many dialects.
Toponym: a place name
Vulgar Latin: A form of Latin used in daily conversation by ancient Romans, as opposed to the standard dialect, which was used for official documents.
Conquest Theory: A theory that holds that speakers of early Proto-Indo-European migrated east to west on horseback, overpowering earlier inhabitants and beginning the diffusion of Indo-European tongues.
Creole or creolized language: A language that results from the mixing of a colonizer's language with the indigenous language of the people being dominated. A pidgin language becomes a creole when it becomes the language that is used daily by the people (example, in Haiti).
Denglish: Combination of German and English.
Dialect: A regional variety of a language distinguished by vocabulary, spelling and pronunciation.
Ebonics: Dialect spoken by some African Americans.
Extinct Language: A language that was once used by people in daily activities but is no longer used (no more native speakers).
Franglais: A term used by the French for English words that have entered the French language; a combination of francais and anglais, the French words for French and English.
Ideograms: The system of writing used in China and Japan in which each symbol represents an idea or a concept rather than a specific sound, as is the case with letters in English.
Isogloss: A boundary that separates regions in which different language usages predominate.
Isolated Language: A language that is unrelated to any other languages and therefore not attached to any language family.
Kurgan Hypothesis: (same as Conquest Theory) theory of diffusion for Indo-European languages - horseback riding herders near the Caspian Sea conquered neighboring tribes diffusing their language in the process.
Language: A system of communication through the use of speech, a collection of sounds understood by a group of people to have the same meaning.
Language branch: A collection of languages (within a family) related through a common ancestor that existed several thousand years ago. Differences are not as extensive or as old as with language families, and archaeological evidence can confirm that the branches derived from the same family. Examples: Germanic or Romance
Language divergence: this occurs when spatial interaction among speakers of a language breaks down and the language fragments first into dialects and then into distinct tongues. For example - between the Spanish and the Portuguese.
Linguistic Diversity Index: A measure that expresses the likelihood that two randomly selected individuals in a country speak different first languages. Values range from .00 to .99. LDI's close to 1 mean high linguistic diversity. Papua New Guinea in Southeast Asia has both the highest LDI ranking and the greatest total number of languages spoken within its borders. Other examples: U.S. = .35, Mexico .13, Myanmar .64.
Language family: A collection of languages related to each other through a common ancestor long before recorded history. For example: Sino-Tibetan
Language group: A collection of languages within a branch that share a common origin in the relatively recent past and display relatively few differences in grammar and vocabulary. Examples: West Germanic, North Germanic
Lingua franca: A language mutually understood and commonly used in trade by people who have different native languages. It is a language of interaction for commerce or possibly education. English is the global lingua franca today. Other lingua francas include Swahili in East Africa and French during the 17-19th centuries.
Literary tradition: A language that is written as well as spoken. Only about 700 of Africa's 2000 or so languages have a literary tradition.
Multilingual states: are countries with more than one language in use. Sometimes linguistic fragmentation occurs (like in Belgium or Quebec, Canada or African countries with many languages (Nigeria) where language is a divisive force.
Official language: The language adopted for use by the government for the conduct of business and publication of documents. Many former British colonies use English and several local languages as "Official" languages.
Pidgin language: A form of speech that adopts a simplified grammar and limited vocabulary of a lingua franca; used for communications among speakers of two different languages.
Renfrew Hypothesis (Anatolian): Archaeologist Colin Renfrew argued that Indo-European diffused into Europe and S. Asia along with agricultural practices rather than by military conquest (Kurgan). The language triumphed because its speakers became more numerous and prosperous by growing their own food instead of relying on hunting.
Sound Shift: a slight change in a word across languages within a subfamily or through a language family from the present backwards towards its origin.
Spanglish: Combination of Spanish and English, spoken by Hispanic Americans.
Standard Language: The form of a language that becomes accepted for education and mass communication. Typically, a dialect in a center of commerce or government becomes the standard version.For example when Martin Luther translated the Bible into German that dialect eventually became "High German," or the standard version for all of Germany even though there were many dialects.
Toponym: a place name
Vulgar Latin: A form of Latin used in daily conversation by ancient Romans, as opposed to the standard dialect, which was used for official documents.
Religion: Chapter 6
Animism: Belief that objects, such as plants, stones or natural events like thunderstorms have a discrete spirit and conscious life.
Autonomous religion: A religion that does not have a central authority but shares ideas and cooperates informally. (Southern Baptists)
Balkanization: Process by which a state breaks down through conflicts among its ethnicities or cultural groups.
Branch: A large fundamental division within a religion. (Sunni/Shia or Catholic/Protestant/Orthodox)
Caste: The class or distinct hereditary order into which a Hindu is assigned.
Cosmogony: A set of religious beliefs concerning the origin of the universe.
Denomination: A division of a branch that unites a number of local congregations into a single legal and administrative body. (Baptist, Presbyterian, Methodist)
Ethnic religion: A religion with a relatively concentrated spatial distribution whose principles are likely to be based on physical characteristics of the particular location in which its adherents are concentrated.
Fundamentalism: Literal interpretation and strict adherence to basic principles of a religion (or a religious branch, denomination or sect).
Ghetto: During the Middle Ages, a neighborhood in a city set up by law to be inhabited only by Jews. Now used to denote a section of a city in which any members of a minority group live because of social, legal or economic pressure.
Hierarchical religion: A religion in which a central authority exercises a high degree of control.
Interfaith boundary: a boundary between the world's major faiths, a fault line between two completely different religions. Example: North Africa with Islam/Christianity, India/Pakistan (Hinduism/Islam)
Intrafaith boundary: a boundary within a single major faith, usually where there is conflict. This often occurs between two branches or denominations of a religion. Example: Ireland/Northern Ireland, Catholic/Protestant, or former Yugoslavia (Bosnia - Orthodox & Roman Catholics).
Missionary: An individual who helps to diffuse a universalizing religion.
Monotheism: The doctrine or belief of the existence of only one god.
Pagan: A follower of a polytheistic religion in ancient times.
Pilgrimage: A journey to a place considered sacred for religious purposes.
Polytheism: Belief in or worship of more than one god.
Sect: A relatively small group that has broken away from an established denomination.
Secularism: The idea that ethical and moral standards should be formulated and adhered to for life on Earth, not to accommodate the prescriptions of a deity and for promises of a comfortable afterlife. A secular state is the opposite of a theocracy. Example: Turkey
Shamanism: Community faith in traditional societies in which people follow a Shaman, or religious leader, teacher, healer or visionary. At times, an especially strong Shaman might attract a regional following, but most remain local figures.
Theocracy: church and state are combined and government is ruled by religious law and leadership. Examples - Saudi Arabia (Sunni), Iran (Shi'a). A secular state is the opposite of this - example Turkey for Islam.
Universalizing religion: A religion that attempts to appeal to all people, not just those living in a particular location.
Wahhabi: The fundamentalist, ultra-conservative sect of Islam practiced in Saudi Arabia. This sect believes that Shari'a law should be strictly enforced through the government. Osama Bin Laden was part of this sect.
Autonomous religion: A religion that does not have a central authority but shares ideas and cooperates informally. (Southern Baptists)
Balkanization: Process by which a state breaks down through conflicts among its ethnicities or cultural groups.
Branch: A large fundamental division within a religion. (Sunni/Shia or Catholic/Protestant/Orthodox)
Caste: The class or distinct hereditary order into which a Hindu is assigned.
Cosmogony: A set of religious beliefs concerning the origin of the universe.
Denomination: A division of a branch that unites a number of local congregations into a single legal and administrative body. (Baptist, Presbyterian, Methodist)
Ethnic religion: A religion with a relatively concentrated spatial distribution whose principles are likely to be based on physical characteristics of the particular location in which its adherents are concentrated.
Fundamentalism: Literal interpretation and strict adherence to basic principles of a religion (or a religious branch, denomination or sect).
Ghetto: During the Middle Ages, a neighborhood in a city set up by law to be inhabited only by Jews. Now used to denote a section of a city in which any members of a minority group live because of social, legal or economic pressure.
Hierarchical religion: A religion in which a central authority exercises a high degree of control.
Interfaith boundary: a boundary between the world's major faiths, a fault line between two completely different religions. Example: North Africa with Islam/Christianity, India/Pakistan (Hinduism/Islam)
Intrafaith boundary: a boundary within a single major faith, usually where there is conflict. This often occurs between two branches or denominations of a religion. Example: Ireland/Northern Ireland, Catholic/Protestant, or former Yugoslavia (Bosnia - Orthodox & Roman Catholics).
Missionary: An individual who helps to diffuse a universalizing religion.
Monotheism: The doctrine or belief of the existence of only one god.
Pagan: A follower of a polytheistic religion in ancient times.
Pilgrimage: A journey to a place considered sacred for religious purposes.
Polytheism: Belief in or worship of more than one god.
Sect: A relatively small group that has broken away from an established denomination.
Secularism: The idea that ethical and moral standards should be formulated and adhered to for life on Earth, not to accommodate the prescriptions of a deity and for promises of a comfortable afterlife. A secular state is the opposite of a theocracy. Example: Turkey
Shamanism: Community faith in traditional societies in which people follow a Shaman, or religious leader, teacher, healer or visionary. At times, an especially strong Shaman might attract a regional following, but most remain local figures.
Theocracy: church and state are combined and government is ruled by religious law and leadership. Examples - Saudi Arabia (Sunni), Iran (Shi'a). A secular state is the opposite of this - example Turkey for Islam.
Universalizing religion: A religion that attempts to appeal to all people, not just those living in a particular location.
Wahhabi: The fundamentalist, ultra-conservative sect of Islam practiced in Saudi Arabia. This sect believes that Shari'a law should be strictly enforced through the government. Osama Bin Laden was part of this sect.